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Gene Regulatiory Factors in Pancreatic Development | |
Рис.1. | The primary transition. Embryonic day 10 mouse embryo. Initiation of pancreatic development is observed as two evaginations, dorsally and ventrally, form on the prospective duodenal region of the primitive gut. Pdx1 (green) is highly expressed both dorsally and ventrally. Note the lower level of Pdx1 immunoreactivity in both the primitive gut tube, extending up in the posterior stomach (future antropyloric domain). Glucagon cells (red) have started to form in the dorsal bud—similar cells will over the following 12–24 hr also start to differentiate in the ventral bud. Endocrine differentiation in the adjacent regions (stomach and intestine) is not initiated until approximately 5 days later. Reproduced with permission from Kluwer Academic Press (Madsen et al., 2001). Рис.2. | Tubulogenesis. A: Schematic presentation of the classic branching type. Cells are at all time points of a single-layered epithelial type. Expansion occurs through facultative divisions within the increasingly folding sheet of cells, thereby generating tubules. B: Tubulogenesis due to fusion of microlumens. Cells are initially residing in a multilayered strati.ed epithelium and are not showing a typical basal/apical polarity. Polarity is induced as microlumens form due to fluid secretion by individual cells. The organization of cells around such lumens generates a single-layered epithelium. As the lumens coalesce, a tubular network is formed. In yellow, the formation of endocrine cells is outlined, as these initially are selected from epithelial cells, where after clustering occurs due to migration. Рис.3. The secondary transition. Embryonic day (E) 13.5 mouse pancreas, doubleprobe in situ hybridized with insulin (red) and amylase (blue). At this stage, exocrine and β-cell terminal differentiation is concomitantly initiated. In the central core of the pancreas, β-cells arise with a scattered distribution and are exclusively nonepithelial at onset of insulin gene expression. In contrast, at the tips of the epithelial branches, exocrine differentiation is initiated, occurring in multiple neighboring cells simultaneously. At E14.5, all cells at the exterior tips have activated the amylase gene—as this occurs over such a short time frame that divisions of a presumed exocrine precursor cell could not have occurred, this shows that individual acini are not clonally derived. One possible exception to this argument is the existence of a clonal precursor before the terminal differentiation process that may have given rise to all cells in the particular group differentiating. Such a possibility has been noted (Gu et al., 2002). The mechanism for initiating exocrine differentiation is not known, but it is conceivable that spatial signals allow differentiation to proceed when a given threshold is met. This could explain why clusters of cells initiate differentiation at the same time. mes, mesenchyme; epi, epithelia. | Рис.4. | Isletogenesis. Embryonic day (E) 19 mouse pancreas double stained for Pdx1 and glucagon. This figure shows a quite interesting organization of the pancreas in between the adult structure with dispersed islets and the islet cell migration phase immediately after the secondary transition. Note the “ribbon-like” organization of the endocrine cells (endoc) in the central core of the pancreas—much re.ecting the earlier central expression of the pro-endocrine gene Ngn3. At E19, most endocrine cells have aggregated, and now α-cells begin to organize around core structures of β-cells (strongly Pdx1-positive cells). Pdx1 is not expressed in α-cells and is also not expressed in the pancreatic duct cells. This finding may signify that the ductal cells may have lost the capacity of undergoing endocrine differentiation and are most likely developing toward a more mature and specialized ductal cell type. Low-level expression of Pdx1 is observed in the exocrine cells (exoc) that are completely filled with secretory granules. Proper islet formation appears to occur through an ensnaring process by the growth of the exocrine tissue, which leads to a cutting off of islets of the “ribbon” as pearls on a string. Рис.5. | Expression of Ngn3 and Ptf1a/p48 in early pancreatic development. Immediately adjacent sections (embryonic day 15.5 mouse pancreas) stained for Ngn3 and Ptf1a (p48). Ngn3-expressing cells are centrally localized (A), and their expression domain does not overlap that of p48 (B). p48 is expressed in the exocrine cells. Рис.6. | Ngn3 expression in epithelial precursor cells. Coexpression analysis of Ngn3 with the epithelial marker β-catenin. β-Catenin allows easy identi.cation of the morphologic shape of the pancreatic cells, here clearly revealing that Ngn3-expressing cells are of a typical epithelial morphology. β-Catenin is strongly expressed in pancreatic progenitor cells. Note the highly variable intensity of Ngn3 expression. This finding could be the outcome of proendocrine morphogenetic signaling with a superimposed lateral specification mechanism. Рис.7. | Lateral speci.cation. The selection process of a pro-endocrine precursor is accomplished by cell– cell signaling between epithelial neighbors. This signaling occurs through a progressive strengthening of the expression levels of Ngn3 in the differentiating cell (left), with a weakening in neighbors (right). The lateral signaling is mediated through the activation of a notch ligand (Delta) controlled by Ngn3. Ligand expression on the differentiating cell activates the notch receptor in the neighbor, in turn activating the bHLH-type Hes1 repressor gene. Hes1 effectively reduces Ngn3 expression in these cells, silencing other proendocrine inputs that the cell may receive. Possibly, as the differentiating endocrine cell delaminates, the previously suppressed cells may initiate a second round of fate selection, whereby such cells may become endocrine if these are still situated in a pro-endocrine field. Рис.8. | Hes1 expression in epithelial precursor cells. Hes1 (green nuclear staining) is dynamically expressed within pancreatic epithelial cells, some mesenchymal cells, but completely absent in differentiated endocrine cells (insulin+ cells shown, red). Weak Hes1 expression is observed in cells in the centroacinar position and absent in differentiating exocrine cells. Certain epithelial cells corresponding to ductal-like precursors do not express Hes1 and are immediately neighboring others that are strongly expressing Hes1. This pattern is expected as lateral inhibition may help single out endocrine precursors. Very likely, although not proven, the Hes1- cells may correspond to Ngn3+ cells. Рис.9. | Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) factors in transcriptional control. bHLH factors are pivotal in positive and negative promoter regulation, and control can be exerted at various levels. Here, a single Ebox is shown, through which both negative and positive gene regulation is conferred. Often, promoters contain independent E-box–like sequences to which positively and negatively acting bHLH heterodimers bind. 1. Passive suppression of gene expression can occur through binding of B- and A-class members to proteins of the id family. Id-type bHLH members lack basic-domain residues and generate a non-DNA binding complex. 2. Active suppression is exerted by, e.g., members of the Hes family. These proteins are capable of DNA binding and recruit a histone deacetylase activity (e.g., HDACs) to target promoters. Long-range repression may be exerted due to ultimerization of the groucho-type adaptor molecule. By deacetylation, adjacent nucleosomes (blue) remain closed at the target promoter. The actual DNA-binding complex may consist of a heterodimer of Hes and HERP family members (Iso et al., 2003). 3. In contrast, the opening of a target promoter may be conferred by binding of a heterodimeric complex consisting of a B-class tissue-specific bHLH member and a more ubiquitous A-class member. A-class, as well as some B-class members, are capable of recruiting coactivators of the CBP/p300 family, which act as histone acetylases facilitating promoter opening. FGF10 signaling maintains the pancreatic progenitor cell state revealing a novel role of Notch in organ development | Gitte Anker Norgaard, Jan Nygaard Jensen, and Jan Jensen* Developmental Biology 264 (2003) 323–338 |
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Dynamic regulation of Pdx1 enhancers by Foxa1 and Foxa2 is essential for pancreas development Nan Gao, John LeLay, Marko Z. Vatamaniuk, Sebastian Rieck, Joshua R. Friedman and Klaus H. Kaestner doi: 10.1101/gad.1752608 Genes & Dev. 2008. 22: 3435-3448 |